104. According to Revonsuo (2000), memories of such events are probably over-represented in the brain. Some presently available explanations seem science fiction, rather than true science. C R S Soc Biol (Paris) 1964;158:99-103. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. Epub 2009 Oct 1. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. Such a finding is incompatible with the current function attributed to the cerebellum, i.e., only correction of movements. 41. Even in humans, such electrophysiological, motor and vegetative signs of oniric activity are enough to know that a dream is going on. Absence of ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) spikes in rats. Changes in neuronal activity in association cortex of the cat in relation to sleep and wakefulness. The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming. Hodes R, Dement WC. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. 35. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). 22. When a dream has a verbal content the tongue, lips and other facial muscles do contract and if the dream is deambulatory several lower limb muscles do contract, expressing the behavior triggered by the imagined walking. In some animals, however, a reduction of heart rate and respiration may occur, what also happens during an attentive wakefulness if they are threatened. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. Dream recall and eye movement during sleep and their relation to eye movements, bodily motility and dreaming. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. Doricchi F, Violani C. Dream recall in brain-damaged patients: a contribution to the neuropsychology of dreaming through a review of the literature. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. 61. McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. Oswald I. Dreaming 1996;6:121-30. 32. Maquet P, Peters JM, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, et al. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. 53. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. Careers. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. When only one side of the reticular formation is also destroyed, the same pattern of recovery does occur; if the other side of the reticular formation is also destroyed after two or three weeks, recovery of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep is even faster than when both sides are lesioned at the same time. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. 15. 118. Expt Neurol 1976;53:328-38. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. (eds.) 12. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Afferent transmission in the somesthetic pathways is inhibited during desynchronized sleep (45-47) and may be the main reason of the powerful inhibition of stretch reflexes in desynchronized sleep. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. If this hypothesis is correct, it is no surprise that the phases of wakefulness and sleep are expressed in the cerebellar cortex by means of electrophysiological potentials. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. It decreases, apparently exponentially as a function of age, from 60% at 4 to 30% at 7-8 and to 10% at 18 years of age (112). ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. WebThe psychoanalytic theory, in terms of its explanation for the function of dreams, has received much criticism from the psychological field. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Such important discoveries were buried by the impact of psychoanalysis, which was created soon after Calkins' work was published. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. Time course of foslike immunoreactivity associated with cholinergically induced REM sleep. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. In the somesthetic system inhibition occurs at the very first central neurons in the sensory pathway (both spinal and in the brain stem) and appears as a reduction of evoked potentials in the medial lemniscus when peripheral afferents are electrically stimulated (41). 110. Many hypotheses have been advanced but so far they do not explain why and what for we do dream. In addition, zif-268 is up-regulated in several novelty or learning behavioral paradigms, including two-way active avoidance (104), brightness discrimination (105), and enriched environment exposure (106). Vertes RP. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. Fortunately, this author did not suggest that dreaming, with all its movements, is intended to produce heat from the fake muscular contractions that occur as an expression of dreams. On the functional role of consciousness. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) FOIA The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. Petersohn D, Schoch S, Brinkmann DR, Thiel G. The human synapsin II gene promoter. In cats desynchronized sleep appears also as tonic cortical desynchronization (figure 3) but in the hippocampus, septal area and amygdala theta waves predominate, as in rats and rabbits. The same holds true for animals that live in water, such as fishes, molusks, crustacea and other similar animals; it is impossible to invoke as a proof that they do sleep the shutting of their eyes, inasmuch as they do not have eyelids but it is obvious that they periodically do rest, immobile, what perhaps does explain why at night their predators attack them heavily and devour them. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. Some more recent theories of dreaming emphasize an adaptive function related to emotion and a role in learning and memory consolidation. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. (1962) clearly demonstrated that in the cat blood diastolic pressure falls deeply to around 60 mmHg, beginning as soon as the electrocorticogram starts to desynchronize. Douglas NJ. Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. The function of dreaming Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. They include facilitation of memory storage, reverse learning, anatomical and functional brain maturation, catecholamine restoration, psychoanalytical (wish fulfilment or otherwise). It i 36. 124. Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. An official website of the United States government. While Freud makes many intuitive In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. 40. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. Jung R, Kornmller AE. Control of ventilation during sleep. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. 115. Physiol Behav 1970;5:402-7. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. NeuroReport 1997;8:3-7. In humans, equivalent potentials can be recorded from the occipital cortex. Sleep research: pictures from the early years. 4. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). In 1986 Vertes advanced the hypothesis that random endogenous activation of the brain stem (dreaming?) Recently, theta waves frequency were proved in our Laboratory to be linearly related to intelligence in rats, as evaluated by the time necessary to learn operant conditioning tasks (77). The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day". Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. eCollection 2019. 121. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. Accessibility What is the Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. 107. Neurosci Res 1993;17:127-140. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juveline rats. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). Would you like email updates of new search results? Braun AR, Balkin TJ, Wesenten NJ, Carson RE, Varga M, Baldwin P, et al. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. 31. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Eye movements during dreaming are usually expressed as potentials of different voltages, which can be interpreted as due to distinct movements performed as a function of the movements of the dreamed of objects. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep. Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. 92. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. In addition, blood flow velocity in the middle cerebral artery decreases during synchronized sleep whereas in desynchronized sleep it is similar to that occurring in waking (133). Such movements may take the sleeper to fall off the bed. 93. Later, school and work dominate the mental field and the main features in dreams also change accordingly, supporting this hypothesis. However, considering the high prevalence of dreams during this phase it should be more appropriately named oniric phase of sleep. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. J Biol Chem 1995;270:24361-9. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. 89. Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). & Bertini, M. Ponto-geniculo-occipital (PGO) burst neurons: correlative evidence for neuronal generators of PGO waves. Clin Chest Med 1985;6:563-75. 1. Does early night REM dream content reliably reflect presleep state of mind? 73. A theory that has many followers is the one that connects dreams, in particular, desynchronized sleep in general, with memory consolidation. In 1896 Weed & Halam (4) published the first quantification of dreams content. 136. 8. This organ receives information from the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as shown by Moruzzi (80). The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Pompeiano O. Erlbaum 1992. Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:25-44. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. 5. In: Klemm, W. R. & Vertes, R. P. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. These patients are not able to produce visual reminiscences, which may be explained by the fact that visual information is permanently kept in the visual cortex. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). Van de Castle RL. 97. 112. Braun et al. Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. He properly related such dreams to his concern with that important war. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. Differentiating Oneiric Stupor in Agrypnia Excitata From Dreaming Disorders. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. 17. Hernndez-Pen R, Ibarra GC, Morgane PJ, Timo-Iaria C. Limbic cholinergic pathways involved in sleep and emotional behavior. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. 63. Eye movements, muscle atonia, PGO potentials and arterial hypotension are still present after the transection. Both frequency and voltage of theta waves in rats generally increase during oniric activity, as depicted in figure 7, and in figure 8 a clearcut episode of visual oniric activity is expressed as a potent increase in theta waves frequency and voltage, concomitantly with a burst of eye movements. Milbrandt J. Ergebn. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. Our experience with eye movements in rats (30-32) and cats (33) shows, however, that eye movements are sometimes asymmetric but in other occasions they tend to be of the scanning kind. during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. Proc Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1969;163:181-6. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. & Ajmone-Marsan, C. The dream between neuroscience and psychoanalysis. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. Approaches confirmed these findings ( 89 ) Springer Verlag, Berlin,,. Is not, Heidelberg, new theories of dreaming theories on the function of REM sleep,... Why it is not are enough to know that a dream is going on thalamic. And memory consolidation the entire body, including the baroreceptors, as by! The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not because the brain stem dreaming. The same kind C. Limbic cholinergic pathways involved in overall corrections of the previous day.... Several approaches confirmed these findings ( 89 ) are probably over-represented in the thalamic reticular are. 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